Regulation of cell proliferation, differentiation, and migration is important for the formation and function of tissues. Regulatory proteins such as growth factors control these cellular processes and act as mediators in cell-cell signaling pathways. Growth factors are secreted proteins that bind to specific cell surface receptors on target cells. The bound receptors trigger intracellular signal transduction pathways which activate various downstream effectors that regulate gene expression, cell division, cell differentiation, cell motility, and other cellular processes. Some of the receptors involved in signal transduction by growth factors belong to the large superfamily of G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) which represent one of the largest receptor superfamilies known.
GPCRs are biologically important as their malfunction has been implicated in contributing to the onset of many diseases, which include, but are not limited to, Alzheimer's, Parkinson, diabetes, dwarfism, color blindness, retinal pigmentosa and asthma. Also, GPCRs have also been implicated in depression, schizophrenia, sleeplessness, hypertension, anxiety, stress, renal failure and in several cardiovascular, metabolic, neuro, oncology and immune disorders (F Horn, G Vriend, J. Mol. Med. 76: 464-468, 1998.). They have also been shown to play a role in HIV infection (Y Feng, C C Broder, P E Kennedy, E A Berger, Science 272:872-877, 1996).
GPCRs are integral membrane proteins characterized by the presence of seven hydrophobic transmembrane domains which together form a bundle of antiparallel alpha (a) helices. The 7 transmembrane regions are designated as TM1, TM2, TM3, TM4, TM5, TM6, and TM7. These proteins range in size from under 400 to over 1000 amino acids (Strosberg, A. D. (1991) Eur. J. Biochem. 196: 110; Coughlin, S. R. (1994) Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 6: 191-197). The amino-terminus of a GPCR is extracellular, is of variable length, and is often glycosylated. The carboxy-terminus is cytoplasmic and generally phosphorylated. Extracellular loops of GPCRs alternate with intracellular loops and link the transmembrane domains. Cysteine disulfide bridges linking the second and third extracellular loops may interact with agonists and antagonists. The most conserved domains of GPCRs are the transmembrane domains and the first two cytoplasmic loops. The transmembrane domains account for structural and functional features of the receptor. In most G-protein coupled receptors, the bundle of a helices forms a ligand-binding pocket formed by several G-protein coupled receptor transmembrane domains.
The TM3 transmembrane domain has been implicated in signal transduction in a number of G-protein coupled receptors. Phosphorylation and lipidation (palmitylation or farnesylation) of cysteine residues can influence signal transduction of some G-protein coupled receptors. Most G-protein coupled receptors contain potential phosphorylation sites within the third cytoplasmic loop and/or the carboxy terminus. For several G-protein coupled receptors, such as the b adrenoreceptor, phosphorylation by protein kinase A and/or specific receptor kinases mediates receptor desensitization.
The extracellular N-terminal segment, or one or more of the three hydrophilic extracellular loops, have been postulated to face inward and form polar ligand binding sites which may participate in ligand binding. Ligand binding activates the receptor by inducing a conformational change in intracellular portions of the receptor. In turn, the large, third intracellular loop of the activated receptor interacts with an intracellular heterotrimeric guanine nucleotide binding (G) protein complex which mediates further intracellular signaling activities, including the activation of second messengers such as cyclic AMP (cAMP), phospholipase C, inositol triphosphate, or ion channel proteins. TM3 has been implicated in several G-protein coupled receptors as having a ligand binding site, such as the TM3 aspartate residue. TM5 serines, a TM6 asparagine and TM6 or TM7 phenylalanines or tyrosines have also been implicated in ligand binding (See, e.g., Watson, S. and S. Arkinstall (1994) The G-protein Linked Receptor Facts Book, Academic Press, San Diego Calif., pp. 2-6; Bolander, F. F. (1994) Molecular Endocrinology, Academic Press, San Diego Calif., pp. 162-176; Baldwin, J. M. (1994) Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 6: 180-190; F Horn, R Bywater, G Krause, W Kuipers, L Oliveira, ACM Paiva, C Sander, G Vriend, Receptors and Channels, 5:305-314, 1998).
Recently, the function of many GPCRs has been shown to be enhanced upon dimerization and/or oligomerization of the activated receptor. In addition, sequestration of the activated GPCR appears to be altered upon the formation of multimeric complexes (AbdAlla, S., et al., Nature, 407:94-98 (2000)).
Structural biology has provided significant insight into the function of the various conserved residues found amongst numerous GPCRs. For example, the tripeptide Asp(Glu)-Arg-Tyr motif is important in maintaining the inactive confirmation of G-protein coupled receptors. The residues within this motif participate in the formation of several hydrogen bonds with surrounding amino acid residues that are important for maintaining the inactive state (Kim, J. M., et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 94:14273-14278 (1997)). Another example relates to the conservation of two Leu (Leu76 and Leu79) residues found within helix II and two Leu residues (Leu 128 and Leu131) found within helix III of GPCRs. Mutation of the Leu128 results in a constitutively active receptor—emphasizing the importance of this residue in maintaining the ground state (Tao, Y. X., et al., Mol. Endocrinol., 14:1272-1282 (2000); and Lu. Z. L., and Hulme, E. C., J. Biol. Chem., 274:7309-7315 (1999). Additional information relative to the functional relevance of several conserved residues within GPCRs may be found by reference to Okada et al in Trends Biochem. Sci., 25:318-324 (2001).
GPCRs include receptors for sensory signal mediators (e.g., light and olfactory stimulatory molecules); adenosine, bombesin, bradykinin, endothelin, y-aminobutyric acid (GABA), hepatocyte growth factor, melanocortins, neuropeptide Y, opioid peptides, opsins, somatostatin, tachykinins, vasoactive intestinal polypeptide family, and vasopressin; biogenic amines (e.g., dopamine, epinephrine and norepinephrine, histamine, glutamate (metabotropic effect), acetylcholine (muscarinic effect), and serotonin); chemokines; lipid mediators of inflammation (e.g., prostaglandins and prostanoids, platelet activating factor, and leukotrienes); and peptide hormones (e.g., calcitonin, C5a anaphylatoxin, folliclestimulating hormone (FSH), gonadotropic-releasing hormone (GnRH), neurokinin, and thyrotropinreleasing hormone (TRH), and oxytocin). GPCRs which act as receptors for stimuli that have yet to be identified are known as orphan receptors.
GPCRs are implicated in inflammation and the immune response, and include the EGF modulecontaining, mucin-like hormone receptor (Emrl) and CD97p receptor proteins. These receptors contain between three and seven potential calcium-binding EGF-like motifs (Baud, V. et al. (1995) Genomics 26: 334-344; Gray, J. X. et al. (1996) J. Immunol. 157: 5438-5447). These GPCRs are members of the recently characterized EGF-TM7 receptors family. In addition, post-translational modification of aspartic acid or asparagine to form erythro-p-hydroxyaspartic acid or erythro-p-hydroxyasparagine has been identified in a number of proteins with domains homologous to EGF. The consensus pattern is located in the N-terminus of the EGF-like domain. Examples of such proteins are blood coagulation factors VII, IX, and X; proteins C, S, and Z; the LDL receptor; and thrombomodulin.
One large subfamily of GPCRs are the olfactory receptors. These receptors share the seven hydrophobic transmembrane domains of other GPCRs and function by registering G protein-mediated transduction of odorant signals. Numerous distinct olfactory receptors are required to distinguish different odors. Each olfactory sensory neuron expresses only one type of olfactory receptor, and distinct spatial zones of neurons expressing distinct receptors are found in nasal pasages. One olfactory receptor, the RAIc receptor which was isolated from a rat brain library, has been shown to be limited in expression to very distinct regions of the brain and a defined zone of the olfactory epithelium (Raming, K. et al., (1998) Receptors Channels 6: 141-151). In another example, three rat genes encoding olfactory-like receptors having typical GPCR characteristics showed expression patterns exclusively in taste, olfactory, and male reproductive tissue (Thomas, M. B. et al. (1996) Gene 178: 1-5).
Another group of GPCRs are the mas oncogene-related proteins. Like the mas oncogenes themselves, some of these mas-like receptors are implicated in intracellular angiotensin II actions.
Angiotensin II, an octapeptide hormone, mediates vasoconstriction and aldosterone secretion through angiotensin II receptor molecules found on smooth vascular muscle and the adrenal glands, respectively.
A cloned human mas-related gene (mrg) mRNA, when injected into Xenopus oocytes, produces an increase in the response to angiotensin peptides. Mrg has been shown to directly affect signaling pathways associated with the angiotensin II receptor, and, accordingly, affects the processes of vasoconstriction and aldosterone secretion (Monnot, C. et al. (1991) Mol. Endocrinol. 5: 1477-1487).
GPCR mutations, which may cause loss of function or constitutive activation, have been associated with numerous human diseases (Coughlin, supra). For instance, retinitis pigmentosa may arise from mutations in the rhodopsin gene. Rhodopsin is the retinal photoreceptor which is located within the discs of the eye rod cell. Parma, J. et al. (1993, Nature 365: 649-651) reported that somatic activating mutations in the thyrotropin receptor cause hyperfunctioning thyroid adenomas and suggested that certain GPCRs susceptible to constitutive activation may behave as protooncogenes.
Purines, and especially adenosine and adenine nucleotides, have a broad range of pharmacological effects mediated through cell-surface receptors. For a general review, see Adenosine and Adenine Nucleotides in The G-Protein Linked Receptor Facts Book, Watsonetal. (Eds.) Academic Press 1994, pp. 19-31.
Some effects of ATP include the regulation of smooth muscle activity, stimulation of the relaxation of intestinal smooth muscle and bladder contraction, stimulation of platelet activation by ADP when released from vascular endothelium, and excitatory effects in the central nervous system. Some effects of adenosine include vasodilation, bronchoconstriction, immunosuppression, inhibition of platelet aggregation, cardiac depression, stimulation of nociceptive afferants, inhibition of neurotransmitter release, pre-and postsynaptic depressant action, reducing motor activity, depressing respiration, inducing sleep, relieving anxiety, and inhibition of release of factors, such as hormones.
Distinct receptors exist for adenosine and adenine nucleotides. Clinical actions of such analogs as methylxanthines, for example, theophylline and caffeine, are thought to achieve their effects by antagonizing adenosine receptors. Adenosine has a low affinity for adenine nucleotide receptors, while adenine nucleotides have a low affinity for adenosine receptors.
There are four accepted subtypes of adenosine receptors, designated A1, A2A, A2B, and A3. In addition, an A4 receptor has been proposed based on labeling by 2 phenylaminoadenosine (Cornfield et al. (1992) Mol. Pharmacol. 42: 552-561).
P2x receptors are ATP-gated cation channels (See Neuropharmacology 36 (1977)). The proposed topology for PZX receptors is two transmembrane regions, a large extracellular loop, and intracellular N and C-termini.
Numerous cloned receptors designated P2y have been proposed to be members of the G-protein coupled family. UDP, UTP, ADP, and ATP have been identified as agonists. To date, P2Y1-7 have been characterized although it has been proposed that P2Y7 may be a leukotriene B4 receptor (Yokomizo et al. (1997) Nature 387: 620-624).
It is widely accepted, however, that P2Y1, 2, 4, and 6 are members of the G-protein coupled family of P2y receptors.
At least three P2 purinoceptors from the hematopoietic cell line HEL have been identified by intracellular calcium mobilization and by photoaffinity labeling (Akbar et al. (1996) J. Biochem. 271: 18363-18567).
The Ai adenosine receptor was designated in view of its ability to inhibit adenylcyclase. The receptors are distributed in many peripheral tissues such as heart, adipose, kidney, stomach and pancreas. They are also found in peripheral nerves, for example intestine and vas deferens. They are present in high levels in the central nervous system, including cerebral cortex, hippocampus, cerebellum, thalamus, and striatum, as well as in several cell lines. Agonists and antagonists can be found on page 22 of The G-Protein Linked Receptor Facts Book cited above, herein incorporated by reference. These receptors are reported to inhibit adenylcyclase and voltage-dependent calcium chanels and to activate potassium chanels through a pertussis-toxin-sensitive G-protein suggested to be of the G/Go class. Ai receptors have also been reported to induce activation of phospholipase C and to potentiate the ability of other receptors to activate this pathway.
The A2A adenosine receptor has been found in brain, such as striatum, olfactory tubercle and nucleus accumbens. In the periphery, A2 receptors mediate vasodilation, immunosuppression, inhibition of platelet aggregation, and gluconeogenesis. Agonists and antagonists are found in The G-Protein Linked Receptor Facts Book cited above on page 25, herein incorporated by reference. This receptor mediates activation of adenylcyclase through Gs.
The A2B receptor has been shown to be present in human brain and in rat intestine and urinary bladder. Agonists and antagonists are discussed on page 27 of The G-Protein Linked Receptor Facts Book cited above, herein incorporated by reference. This receptor mediates the stimulation of cAMP through Gg.
The A3 adenosine receptor is expressed in testes, lung, kidney, heart, central nervous system, including cerebral cortex, striatum, and olfactory bulb. A discussion of agonists and antagonists can be found on page 28 of The G-Protein Linked Receptor Facts Book cited above, herein incorporated by reference. The receptor mediates the inhibition of adenylcyclase through a pertussis-toxin-sensitive G-protein, suggested to be of the Gi/Go class.
The P2Y purinoceptor shows a similar affinity for ATP and ADP with a lower affinity for AMP. The receptor has been found in smooth muscle, for example, and in vascular tissue where it induces vasodilation through endothelium-dependent release of nitric oxide. It has also been shown in avian erythrocytes.
Agonists and antagonists are discussed on page 30 of The G-Protein Linked Receptor Facts Book cited above, herein incorporated by reference. The receptor function through activation of phosphoinositide metabolism through a pertussis-toxinin sensitive G-protein, suggested to be of the Gi/Go class.
The G-protein coupled receptors of the present invention are believed to belong to a class of G-protein coupled receptors commonly referred to as Secretin receptors. The gastrointestinal hormone Secretin is known to bind to these receptors bind, which are typically expressed in the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. The signaling mechanism of Secretin receptors primarily involves the AC/protein kinase A and phospholipase C/protein kinase C cascades (Nussdorfer, G, G., Bahcelioglu, M., Neri, G., Malendowicz, L, K, Peptides., 21(2):309-24, (2000)). As such, it is believed that Secretin receptors play a role in the regulation of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, among others. As activation of Secretin receptors is based upon the binding of Secretin, indications specific to Secretin are also applicable to Secretin receptors.
In the gastrointestinal system, Secretin is released by S cells in response to acid quimo. Once released, Secretin stimulates the release of water, bicarbonate, and enteropeptidases. Release of bicarbonate is due to the downstream activation of CFTR, a chloride channel activated by cAMPin addition to a chloride/bicarbonate exchanger (Erlinger, S, J. Gastroenterol, Hepatol., 11(6):575-9, (1996)). Aside from its role in digestion, Secretin also plays a role in the endocrine system due to its ability to inhibit adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) release, for example.
Characterization of the HGPRBMY29 polypeptide of the present invention led to the determination that it is involved in the modulation of the p27 G1/S-phase cell cycle check point protein; modulation of the FEN1 DNA base-excision repair/proliferation modulating protein; and/or involved in the modulation of the IkB protein, either directly or indirectly.
Critical transitions through the cell cycle are highly regulated by distinct protein kinase complexes, each composed of a cyclin regulatory and a cyclin-dependent kinase (cdk) catalytic subunit (for review see Draetta, 1994). These proteins regulate the cell's progression through the stages of the cell cycle and are in turn regulated by numerous proteins, including p53, p21, p16, p27, and cdc25. Downstream targets of cyclin-cdk complexes include pRb and E2F. The cell cycle often is dysregulated in neoplasia due to alterations either in oncogenes that indirectly affect the cell cycle or in tumor suppressor genes or oncogenes that directly impact cell cycle regulation, such as pRb, p53, p16, cyclin D1, or mdm-2 (for review see Lee and Yang, 2001, Schafer, 1998).
P27, also known as CDNK1B (cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1B) or KIP1, shares a limited similarity with the CDK inhibitor CDKN1A/p21. The encoded protein binds to and prevents the activation of cyclinE-CDK2 or cyclinD-CDK4 complexes. Therefore it mainly blocks the cell cycle progression at the G1- and S-phases (for review see Desdouets and Brechot, 2000).
Reduction in levels of p27 and increased expression of cyclin E also occur and carry a poor prognostic significance in many common forms of cancer. The inhibition of protein activities leading to an upregulation of p27 might therefore be a possibility to decrease the progression of cancer and increase patient survival rates (for review see Sgambato, 2000).
Recently, Medema et al. (2000) demonstrated that p27 is a major transcriptional target of forkhead transcription factors FKHRL1, AFX, or FKHR. Overexpression of these proteins causes growth suppression in a variety of cell lines, including a Ras-transformed cell line and a cell line lacking the tumor suppressor PTEN integrating signals from PI3K/PKB signaling and RAS/RAL signaling to regulate transcription of p27(KIP1). Expression of AFX blocked cell cycle progression at phase Gi, independent of functional retinoblastoma protein but dependent on the cell cycle inhibitor p27(KIP1). This is further supported by the fact that AFX activity inhibits p27−/− knockout mouse cells significantly less than their p27 +/+counterparts.
The connection between the PTEN pathway and the activation of p27 via forkhead-like transcription factors implies that genes whose inhibition leads to p27 upregulation might be involved in this pathway. Therefore the identification of genes whose knockout leads to an upregulation of p27 might be useful drug targets, as inhibition of such genes should result in the upregulation of p27 and therefore be useful for the treatment and/or amelioration of cancer and increase a cancer patients prolonged outlook and survival.
In mammalian cells, single-base lesions, such as uracil and abasic sites, appear to be repaired by at least two base excision repair (BER) subpathways: “single-nucleotide BER” requiring DNA synthesis of just one nucleotide and “long patch BER” requiring multi-nucleotide DNA synthesis. In single-nucleotide BER, DNA polymerase beta (beta-pol) accounts for both gap filling DNA synthesis and removal of the 5′-deoxyribose phosphate (dRP) of the abasic site, whereas the involvement of various DNA polymerases in long patch BER is less well understood.
Flap endonuclease 1 (Fen1) is a structure-specific metallonuclease that plays an essential function in DNA replication and DNA repair (Tom, S., Henricksen, L, A., Bambara, R, A, J. Biol, Chem., 275(14):10498-505, (2000)). It interacts like many other proteins involved in DNA metabolic events with proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), and its enzymatic activity is stimulated by PCNA in vitro by as much as 5 to 50 fold (Stucki, M., Jonsson, Z, O., Hubscher, U, J. Biol, Chem., 276(11):7843-9, (2001)). Recently, immunodepletion experiments in human lymphoid cell extracts have shown long-patch BER to be dependent upon FEN1 (Prasad, R., Dia, G, L., Bohr, V, A., Wilson, S, H, J. Biol, Chem., 275(6):4460-6, (2000)). In addition, FEN1 has also been shown to cooperate with beta-pol in long patch BER excision and is involved in determining the predominant excision product seen in cell extracts. The substrate for FEN1 is a flap formed by natural 5′-end displacement of the short intermediates of lagging strand replication. FEN1 binds to the 5′-end of the flap, tracks to the point of annealing at the base of the flap, and then cleaves the substrate (Tom, S., Henricksen, L, A., Bambara, R, A, J. Biol, Chem., 275(14):10498-505, (2000)).
The Fen1 is also referred to as Rad27. FEN1 plays a critical role in base-excision repair as evidenced by Saccharomyces cerevisiae FEN1 null mutants displaying an enhancement in recombination that increases as sequence length decreases (Negritto, M, C., Qiu, J., Ratay, D, O., Shen, B., Bailis, A, M, Mol, Cell, Biol., 21(7):2349-58, (2001)). The latter suggests that Rad27 preferentially restricts recombination between short sequences. Since wild-type alleles of both RAD27 and its human homologue FEN1 complement the elevated short-sequence recombination (SSR) phenotype of a rad27-null mutant, this function may be conserved from yeast to humans. Furthermore, mutant Rad27 and FEN-1 enzymes with partial flap endonuclease activity but without nick-specific exonuclease activity were shown to partially complement the SSR phenotype of the rad27-null mutant suggesting that the endonuclease activity of Rad27 (FEN-1) plays a role in limiting recombination between short sequences in eukaryotic cells. In addition, preliminary data from yeast suggests the FEN-1 deficiencies may result in genomic instability (Ma, X., Jin, Q., Forsti, A., Hemminki, K., Ku, R, Int, J. Cancer., 88(6):938-42, (2000)). More recently, FEN1 null mutants results in the expansion of repetitive sequences (Henricksen, L, A., Tom, S., Liu, Y., Bambara, R, A, J. Biol, Chem., 275(22):16420-7, (2000)).
Aside from the role of FEN1 in base-excision repair, FEN1 has also been shown to play a significant role in modulating signal transduction in proliferating cells. This role is intricately associated with the role of FEN1 in DNA replication. Of particular significance is the observation that FEN1 is a nuclear antigen, that it is expressed by cycling cells, and that it co-localizes with PCNA and polymerase alpha during S phase. Fen1 expression is topologically regulated in vivo and is associated with proliferative populations (Warbrick, E., Coates, P, J., Hall, P, A, J. Pathol., 186(3):319-24, (1998)). Antibodies have been described by Warbrick et al. that specifically bind FEN1, the assays of which are hereby incorporated herein by reference.
In addition, experiments in S. cerevisiae using the novel immunosuppressant agent SR 31747 have shown that SR 31747 arrests cell proliferation by directly targeting sterol isomerase and that FEN1 is required to mediate the proliferation arrest induced by ergosterol depletion (Silve, S., Leplatois, P., Josse, A., Dupuy, P, H., Lanau, C., Kaghad, M., Dhers, C., Picard, C., Rahier, A., Taton, M., Le, Fur, G., Caput, D., Ferrara, P., Loison, G, Mol, Cell, Biol., 16(6):2719-27, (1996)).
Moreover, the fate of a cell in multicellular organisms often requires choosing between life and death. This process of cell suicide, known as programmed cell death or apoptosis, occurs during a number of events in an organisms life cycle, such as for example, in development of an embryo, during the course of an immunological response, or in the demise of cancerous cells after drug treatment, among others. The final outcome of cell survival versus apoptosis is dependent on the balance of two counteracting events, the onset and speed of caspase cascade activation (essentially a protease chain reaction), and the delivery of antiapoptotic factors which block the caspase activity (Aggarwal B. B. Biochem. Pharmacol. 60, 1033-1039, (2000); Thornberry, N. A. and Lazebnik, Y. Science 281, 1312-1316, (1998)).
The production of antiapoptotic proteins is controlled by the transcriptional factor complex NF-kB. For example, exposure of cells to the protein tumor necrosis factor (TNF) can signal both cell death and survival, an event playing a major role in the regulation of immunological and inflammatory responses (Ghosh, S., May, M. J., Kopp, E. B. Annu. Rev'. Immunol. 16, 225-260, (1998); Silverman, N. and Maniatis, T., Genes & Dev. 15, 2321-2342, (2001); Baud, V. and Karin, M., Trends Cell Biol. 11, 372-377, (2001)). The anti-apoptotic activity of NF-kB is also crucial to oncogenesis and to chemo- and radio-resistance in cancer (Baldwin, A. S., J. Clin. Inves. 107, 241-246, (2001)).
Nuclear Factor-kB (NF-kB), is composed of dimeric complexes of p50 (NF-kB1) or p52 (NF-kB2) usually associated with members of the Rel family (p65, c-Rel, Rel B) which have potent transactivation domains. Different combinations of NF-kB/Rel proteins bind distinct kB sites to regulate the transcription of different genes. Early work involving NF-kB suggested its expression was limited to specific cell types, particularly in stimulating the transcription of genes encoding kappa immunoglobulins in B lymphocytes. However, it has been discovered that NF-kB is, in fact, present and inducible in many, if not all, cell types and that it acts as an intracellular messenger capable of playing a broad role in gene regulation as a mediator of inducible signal transduction. Specifically, it has been demonstrated that NF-kB plays a central role in regulation of intercellular signals in many cell types. For example, NF-kB has been shown to positively regulate the human beta-interferon (beta-IFN) gene in many, if not all, cell types. Moreover, NF-kB has also been shown to serve the important function of acting as an intracellular transducer of external influences.
The transcription factor NF-kB is sequestered in an inactive form in the cytoplasm as a complex with its inhibitor, IkB, the most prominent member of this class being IkBa. A number of factors are known to serve the role of stimulators of NF-kB activity, such as, for example, TNF. After TNF exposure, the inhibitor is phosphorylated and proteolytically removed, releasing NF-kB into the nucleus and allowing its transcriptional activity. Numerous genes are upregulated by this transcription factor, among them IkBa. The newly synthezised IkBa protein inhibits NF-kB, effectively shutting down further transcriptional activation of its downstream effectors. However, as mentioned above, the IkBa protein may only inhibit NF-kB in the absence of IkBa stimuli, such as TNF stimulation, for example. Other agents that are known to stimulate NF-kB release, and thus NF-kB activity, are bacterial lipopolysaccharide, extracellular polypeptides, chemical agents, such as phorbol esters, which stimulate intracellular phosphokinases, inflammatory cytokines, IL-1, oxidative and fluid mechanical stresses, and Ionizing Radiation (Basu, S., Rosenzweig, K, R., Youmell, M., Price, B, D, Biochem, Biophys, Res, Commun., 247(1):79-83, (1998)). Therefore, as a general rule, the stronger the insulting stimulus, the stronger the resulting NF-kB activation, and the higher the level of IkBa transcription. As a consequence, measuring the level of IkBa RNA can be used as a marker for antiapoptotic events, and indirectly, for the onset and strength of pro-apoptotic events.
Using the above examples, it is clear the availability of novel cloned G-protein coupled receptors provides an opportunity for adjunct or replacement therapy, and are useful for the identification of G-protein coupled receptor agonists, or stimulators (which might stimulate and/or bias GPCR action), as well as, in the identification of G-protein coupled receptor inhibitors. All of which might be therapeutically useful under different circumstances.
The present invention also relates to recombinant vectors, which include the isolated nucleic acid molecules of the present invention, and to host cells containing the recombinant vectors, as well as to methods of making such vectors and host cells, in addition to their use in the production of HGPRBMY28, HGPRBMY29, HGPRBMY29sv1, and HGPRBMY29sv2 polypeptides or peptides using recombinant techniques. Synthetic methods for producing the polypeptides and polynucleotides of the present invention are provided. Also provided are diagnostic methods for detecting diseases, disorders, and/or conditions related to the HGPRBMY28, HGPRBMY29, HGPRBMY29sv1, and HGPRBMY29sv2 polypeptides and polynucleotides, and therapeutic methods for treating such diseases, disorders, and/or conditions. The invention further relates to screening methods for identifying binding partners of the polypeptides.